Ethernet networks: Repeaters, Cabling and Switching Hubs

An engineer named Bob Metcalfe conceived the idea of Ethernet in 1973, while working for the Xerox research…

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Safety Gas Analyzers

Process analyzers measure the concentration of specific substances for the purpose of measuring and/or…

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Self-balancing Pneumatic Instruments Principles

A great many precision instruments use the principle of balance to measure some quantity. Perhaps the simplest…

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Chemiluminescence Measurement

Recall that an exothermic chemical reaction is one that releases a net sum of energy, as opposed to an…

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Numerical Integration

As we have seen, the concept of integration is finding the accumulation of one variable multiplied by another…

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Conservation Laws

The Law of Mass Conservation states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed. The Law of Energy…

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Laser Spectroscopy

A laser is a light source emitting waves of light that not only share the exact same frequency (color)…

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Level Gauges (Sightglasses)

Level gauges are perhaps the simplest indicating instrument for liquid level in a vessel. They are often found…

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Force-balance Pressure Transmitters

An important legacy technology for all kinds of continuous measurement is the self-balancing system. A…

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Periodic Table of the Ions

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Introduction to Power System Automation

Those familiar with industrial instrumentation will find much within the electric power industry remarkably…

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Assessing Student Learning

As a general rule, high achievement only takes place in an atmosphere of high expectations. Sometimes these…

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Legal Code

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License By exercising the Licensed Rights (defined…

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Practical PID Controller Features

In order for any PID controller to be practical, it must be able to do more than just implement the PID…

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Insertion Flowmeters

This section does not describe a particular type of flowmeter, but rather a design that may be implemented for…

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Understanding Electrical Power Grids

The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…

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Input/Output (I/O) Capabilities of PLCs

Every programmable logic controller must have some means of receiving and interpreting signals from real-world…

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Ladder Diagram (LD) Programming Contacts and Coils

In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…

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What are Simple Machines?

A machine in the broad sense of the word is any device designed to translate some form of energy into useful…

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Motives for Compromising the Security of an Industrial Control System

There are multiple motives for compromising the security of an industrial control system, some of which…

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