Earlier in this chapter you were shown a model of a nitrogen atom with a dense nucleus (comprised of protons…
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A Safety Instrumented Function, or SIF, is one or more components designed to execute a specific…
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A proximity switch is one detecting the proximity (closeness) of some object. By definition, these switches…
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The final element of PID control is the “D” term, which stands for derivative. This is a calculus…
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There are many process control applications in the industry where it is desirable to have multiple control…
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One of the great benefits of digital technology is the ability to communicate vast amounts of information over…
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In addition to Ohm’s Law, we have a set of rules describing how voltages, currents, and resistances…
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A machine in the broad sense of the word is any device designed to translate some form of energy into useful…
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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Some of the simplest types of digital communication networks found in industry are defined by the EIA…
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The final step in treating wastewater before releasing it into the natural environment is to kill any harmful…
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Many years ago, when I was first learning about electricity, I happened to discover a length of coaxial…
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Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…
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It is often useful to express the amplitude of an alternating quantity such as voltage or current in terms…
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A level switch is one detecting the level of liquid or solid (granules or powder) in a vessel. Level switches…
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The reason why a pneumatic control valve’s stem position corresponds linearly to the amount of air…
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Linearity of Measurement Instruments The purpose of calibration is to ensure the input and output of an…
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Layer 1 of the OSI Reference Model is where we define the “physical” elements of a digital data…
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Capacitors store energy in electric fields, proportional to the square of voltage. Inductors store energy in…
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Some analyzers measure the composition of a process stream by directly immersing the sensing element in that…
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