The Law of Continuity for fluids states that the product of mass density (\(\rho\)), cross-sectional pipe area…
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The three “elementary” particles of matter comprising all atoms are electrons, protons, and…
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A Safety Instrumented Function, or SIF, is one or more components designed to execute a specific…
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The concepts of calibration (trimming) and ranging are often difficult for new students of instrumentation to…
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To review, voltage is the measure of potential energy available to electric charges. Current is the uniform…
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Volumes could be written about poor diagnostic technique. The following mistakes are not intended to comprise…
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As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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A powerful mathematical concept useful for analyzing practically any physical system – electrical…
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Recall that an exothermic chemical reaction is one that releases a net sum of energy, as opposed to an…
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The Law of Mass Conservation states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed. The Law of Energy…
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A Safety Instrumented Function, or SIF, is one or more components designed to execute a specific…
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A 4 to 20 mA current signal represents some signal along a 0 to 100 percent scale. Usually, this scale is…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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The disadvantages of pneumatic instruments are painfully evident to anyone familiar with both pneumatic and…
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Most of these formulae appear in molecular chemical form rather than structural form. For example, ethanol…
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An extremely important topic in engineering is that of transfer functions. Simply defined, a transfer function…
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Every programmable logic controller must have some means of receiving and interpreting signals from real-world…
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Many years ago, when I was first learning about electricity, I happened to discover a length of coaxial…
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A whole class of problem-solving techniques focuses on altering the given problem into a simpler form that is…
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Visualizing the actions of P, I, and D tuning parameters using graphs is extremely useful in predicting the…
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Imagine a liquid-level control system for a vessel, where the position of a level-sensing float directly sets…
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A bridge circuit is basically a pair of voltage dividers where the circuit output is taken as the difference…
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Impedance in a series circuit is the orthogonal sum of resistance and reactance: \[Z = \sqrt{R^2 + (X_L -…
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