Like many other mathematical operations, the derivative and the integral perform inverse operations from each…
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These fortifications focus on human behavior rather than system design or component selection. In some ways…
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The final element of PID control is the “D” term, which stands for derivative. This is a calculus…
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Perhaps the most important rule of controller tuning is to know the process before attempting to adjust the…
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A much simpler alternative to continuous vibration sensors (displacement or acceleration) and monitoring…
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One of the marks of a successful problem-solver is a habit of applying general principles to every new problem…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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An important performance parameter for transmitter instruments is something often referred to as turndown or…
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The following animation shows how the “rotating” magnetic field of a three-phase AC induction…
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Up until this point, we have explored various types of instrumentation diagram, each one making reference to…
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In contrast to quantitative tuning procedures where definite numerical values for P, I, and D controller…
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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Nearly every technical course teaches and tests students on definitions, basic concepts, and at least some…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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Mechanical pressure-sensing elements include the bellows, the diaphragm, and the bourdon tube. Each of these…
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A unique form of differential pressure-based flow measurement deserves its own section in this flow…
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For better or worse, there are no fewer than three different forms of PID equations implemented in modern PID…
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An important legacy technology for all kinds of continuous measurement is the self-balancing system. A…
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A limit switch detects the physical motion of an object by direct contact with that object. An example of a…
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