The final step in treating wastewater before releasing it into the natural environment is to kill any harmful…
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An interesting parallel to the “unity fraction” unit conversion technique is something referred to…
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Programmable logic controllers are essentially nothing more than special-purpose, industrial computers. As…
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An extremely important topic in engineering is that of transfer functions. Simply defined, a transfer function…
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A fluid is any substance having the ability to flow: to freely change shape and move under the influence of a…
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(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)
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In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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When control valves operate between fully open and fully shut, they serve much the same purpose in process…
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Thermodynamics is the study of heat, temperature, and their related effects in physical systems. As a subject,…
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Light is known to interact with matter in very specific ways, which may be exploited as a means of measuring…
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Phasors are to AC circuit quantities as polarity is to DC circuit quantities: a way to express the…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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The following photograph shows a large air blower in a wastewater treatment facility equipped with a…
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All masses require force to accelerate (we can also think of this in terms of the mass generating a reaction…
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Displacer level instruments exploit Archimedes’ Principle to detect liquid level by continuously…
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Human-machine interfaces, or HMIs, are a critical part of nearly all control systems, complementing the…
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Valves can experience a number of problems, most of them either preventable or repairable. These problems can…
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In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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Although analog electronic process controllers are considered a newer technology than pneumatic process…
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Valves can experience a number of problems, most of them either preventable or repairable. These problems can…
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As we have seen, feedforward control is a way to improve the stability of a feedback control system in the…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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There are many process control applications in the industry where it is desirable to have multiple control…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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Light is known to interact with matter in very specific ways, which may be exploited as a means of measuring…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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As we have seen, the concept of integration is finding the accumulation of one variable multiplied by another…
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As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, instrumentation safety may be broadly divided into two…
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“Feedforward” is a rather under-used control strategy capable of managing a great many types of…
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A completely different way of measuring liquid level in vessels is to bounce a traveling wave off the surface…
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As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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Hydrogen ion activity in aqueous (water-solvent) solutions is a very important parameter for a wide variety of…
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Phasors are to AC circuit quantities as polarity is to DC circuit quantities: a way to express the…
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Non-dispersive analysis, while newer in discovery than dispersive analysis (Isaac Newton’s 17th-century…
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The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…
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Diagnostic ability is arguably the most difficult skill to develop within a student, and also the most…
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Another category of control strategies involves the use of signal relays or function blocks with the ability…
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There are several different methods useful for causing an AC induction motor to brake, or slow down: DC…
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Linearity of Measurement Instruments The purpose of calibration is to ensure the input and output of an…
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Perhaps the most confusing aspect of discrete sensors is the definition of a sensor’s normal status.…
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Process analyzers measure the concentration of specific substances for the purpose of measuring and/or…
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At the root of successful system diagnosis is a rigorous adherence to scientific reasoning. There exists no…
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Using filter cells to eliminate wavelengths associated with interfering gases is called positive filtering in…
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When a high-energy photon strikes an atom, it may eject one of the lower-level electrons from its shell,…
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Filled-bulb systems exploit the principle of fluid expansion to measure temperature. If a fluid is enclosed in…
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A hand switch is exactly what the name implies: an electrical switch actuated by a person’s hand motion.…
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Virtually any mass above absolute zero temperature emits electromagnetic radiation (photons, or light) as a…
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All substances are comprised of various elements in various combinations and proportions. Elements may thus be…
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The concepts of calibration (trimming) and ranging are often difficult for new students of instrumentation to…
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An important legacy technology for all kinds of continuous measurement is the self-balancing system. A…
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A whole class of problem-solving techniques focuses on altering the given problem into a simpler form that is…
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Learning PLC programming is a very important skill. If your job involves programming, then you will likely…
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The simplest form of 4-20 mA current loop is the type used to represent the output of a process controller,…
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A very simple device used to measure pressure is the manometer: a fluid-filled tube where an applied gas…
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The transformer is one of the most important components in all of AC circuitry. Principally used to…
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