One of the most important accessories for any temperature-sensing element is a pressure-tight sheath known as…
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Disturbances in the liquid tend to complicate liquid level measurement. These disturbances may result from…
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Multiple accessories exist for pressure-sensing devices to function optimally in challenging process…
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Perhaps the most confusing aspect of discrete sensors is the definition of a sensor’s normal status.…
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The Law of Continuity for fluids states that the product of mass density (\(\rho\)), cross-sectional pipe area…
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Several different technologies exist for the conversion of fluid pressure into an electrical signal response.…
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Imagine a liquid-level control system for a vessel, where the position of a level-sensing float directly sets…
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A powerful mathematical concept useful for analyzing practically any physical system – electrical…
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Pipe is a hollow structure designed to provide an enclosed pathway for fluids to flow, usually manufactured…
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The vast majority of modern process transmitters (both analog and digital) come equipped with a feature known…
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One of the simplest classes of temperature sensor is one where temperature effects a change in electrical…
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A simple control system drawn in block diagram form looks like this: Information from the measuring device…
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A great many chemical composition measurements may be made indirectly by means of electricity, if those…
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A form of protection against faults on long-distance power lines is called distance relaying, so named because…
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A limitation inherent to pneumatic valve actuators is the amount of air flow required to or from the actuator…
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Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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A very simple device used to measure pressure is the manometer: a fluid-filled tube where an applied gas…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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Disturbances in the liquid tend to complicate liquid level measurement. These disturbances may result from…
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Imagine a major marathon race, where hundreds of runners gather in one place to compete. When the starting gun…
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Self-balancing pneumatic instrument mechanisms are very similar to negative-feedback operational amplifier…
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A flow switch is one that detects the flow of some fluid through a pipe. Flow switches often use…
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The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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Light is known to interact with matter in very specific ways, which may be exploited as a means of measuring…
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An on/off valve is the fluid equivalent of an electrical switch: a device that either allows unimpeded flow or…
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There are multiple motives for compromising the security of an industrial control system, some of which…
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In addition to directly performing logic functions, electromechanical relays may also be used as interposing…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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In our first signal characterization example, we tackle the problem of measuring fluid flow through a pipe. To…
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An exciting development in industrial instrumentation is the WirelessHART radio communication standard,…
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The concepts of calibration (trimming) and ranging are often difficult for new students of instrumentation to…
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Tube, like pipe, is a hollow structure designed to provide an enclosed pathway for fluids to flow. In the case…
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Displacer level instruments exploit Archimedes’ Principle to detect liquid level by continuously…
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Suppose we wished to measure the rate of propane gas flow through a hose to a torch: Flowmeters appropriate…
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The three “elementary” particles of matter comprising all atoms are electrons, protons, and…
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Some problem-solving techniques are unique to quantitative problems, involving mathematical calculations. In…
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Instrument technicians should not have to concern themselves over the programming details internal to digital…
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Negative feedback systems, in general, tend to cause confusion for those first learning their fundamental…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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An important legacy technology for all kinds of continuous measurement is the self-balancing system. A…
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Control strategies such as cascade, ratio, feedforward, and those containing limit and selector functions can…
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