Any physical location in an industrial facility harboring the potential of explosion due to the presence of…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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Virtually any mass above absolute zero temperature emits electromagnetic radiation (photons, or light) as a…
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Human-machine interfaces, or HMIs, are a critical part of nearly all control systems, complementing the…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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An important type of “accessory” relay, especially for legacy electromechanical protective relays,…
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Using filter cells to eliminate wavelengths associated with interfering gases is called positive filtering in…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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Learning PLC programming is a very important skill. If your job involves programming, then you will likely…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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A form of protection against faults on long-distance power lines is called distance relaying, so named because…
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There are several different methods useful for causing an AC induction motor to brake, or slow down: DC…
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All masses require force to accelerate (we can also think of this in terms of the mass generating a reaction…
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There is much to be said for neatness of assembly in electrical signal wiring. Even though the electrons…
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The digital multimeter (DMM) is quite possibly the most useful tool in the instrument technician’s…
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In addition to directly performing logic functions, electromechanical relays may also be used as interposing…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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Regulating the electric power sent to an electric motor is a task performed by high-speed switching…
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The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…
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This section shows some of the many instrument symbols found in different types of technical diagrams used to…
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Impedance in a series circuit is the orthogonal sum of resistance and reactance: \[Z = \sqrt{R^2 + (X_L -…
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Temperature measurement devices may be classified into two broad types: contact and non-contact. Contact-type…
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Thermodynamics is the study of heat, temperature, and their related effects in physical systems. As a subject,…
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The next level of detail is the Process and Instrument Diagram, or P&ID. Here, we see a “zooming…
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The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…
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In our first signal characterization example, we tackle the problem of measuring fluid flow through a pipe. To…
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Several different technologies exist for the conversion of fluid pressure into an electrical signal response.…
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Data-processing modules within FF systems are known as function blocks. Sometimes these blocks serve merely to…
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Some problem-solving techniques are unique to quantitative problems, involving mathematical calculations. In…
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A level switch is one detecting the level of liquid or solid (granules or powder) in a vessel. Level switches…
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It is possible to convey electrical power and communicate analog information over the same two wires using 4…
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Modern analog-to-digital converters are phenomenally accurate, dependable, repeatable, and surprisingly…
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Diagnostic ability is arguably the most difficult skill to develop within a student, and also the most…
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Electrical Resistance Resistance (\(R\)) is the dissipative opposition to an electric current, analogous to…
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There are many process control applications in the industry where it is desirable to have multiple control…
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Much of our knowledge about atomic structure comes from experimental data relating the interaction between…
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An on/off valve is the fluid equivalent of an electrical switch: a device that either allows unimpeded flow or…
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The Law of Mass Conservation states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed. The Law of Energy…
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Current is the name we give to the motion of electric charges from a point of high potential to a point of low…
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