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Coy, John J. et. al. (December 2012) Sampled graphic illustrations from his NASA Reference Publication…

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Radio-energy Pulse in Guided-wave Radar Level Measurement

The following animation shows how a radio-energy pulse travels down and then up the waveguide of a guided-wave…

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Understanding Area, Volume and Common Geometry

Area refers to the size of two-dimensional surface. Volume refers to the size of a three-dimensional space. To…

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Pilot Valves and Pneumatic Amplifying Relays

Self-balancing mechanisms consisting solely of a baffle/nozzle detector coupled to a feedback bellows, while…

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Input/Output (I/O) Capabilities of PLCs

Every programmable logic controller must have some means of receiving and interpreting signals from real-world…

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The International System of Units

The very purpose of physics is to quantitatively describe and explain the physical world in as few terms as…

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Capacitive Level Measurement

Capacitive level instruments measure electrical capacitance of a conductive rod inserted vertically into a…

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Analysis of Practical Pneumatic Instruments

To better understand the design and operation of self-balancing pneumatic mechanisms, it is helpful to examine…

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Analyzer Sample Systems

Some analyzers measure the composition of a process stream by directly immersing the sensing element in that…

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Ultrasonic (Sound) Echo Level Measurement

A completely different way of measuring liquid level in vessels is to bounce a traveling wave off the surface…

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Classical Mechanics

Classical mechanics (often called Newtonian mechanics in honor of Isaac Newton) deal with forces and motions…

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General Problem-solving Techniques

A variety of problem-solving techniques have been presented for students over the years which are all helpful…

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What is Electrical Power?

Since we often use electricity to convey energy from one location to another, it is important to be able to…

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Gas Filter Correlation (GFC) Spectroscopy

Using filter cells to eliminate wavelengths associated with interfering gases is called positive filtering in…

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Classified Areas and Electrical Safety Measures

Any physical location in an industrial facility harboring the potential of explosion due to the presence of…

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Numerical Integration

As we have seen, the concept of integration is finding the accumulation of one variable multiplied by another…

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Vibration Sensors

Sensors used to measure vibration come in three basic types: displacement, velocity, and acceleration.…

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Metric Prefixes and Prefix Scale

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Quantitative PID Tuning Procedures

A quantitative PID tuning procedure is a step-by-step approach leading directly to a set of numerical values…

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Energy in Chemical Reactions

A chemical reaction resulting in a net release of energy is called exothermic. Conversely, a chemical reaction…

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