Ladder Diagram (LD) Structure Commands

The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…

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Vibration Monitoring Hardware

The following photograph shows a large air blower in a wastewater treatment facility equipped with a…

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Fiber Optic Data Communication

Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…

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Control Valve Actuators

The purpose of a control valve actuator is to provide the motive force to operate a valve mechanism. Both…

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Troubleshooting Current Loops

A fundamental principle in instrumentation system troubleshooting is that every instrument has at least one…

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Motives for Compromising the Security of an Industrial Control System

There are multiple motives for compromising the security of an industrial control system, some of which…

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Memory Maps and I/O Addressing

A wise PLC programmer once told me that the first thing any aspiring programmer should learn about the PLC…

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Calibration Errors and Testing

The efficient identification and correction of instrument calibration errors is an important function for…

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The Difference Between Series and Parallel Circuits

In addition to Ohm’s Law, we have a set of rules describing how voltages, currents, and resistances…

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Radiation Level Measurement

Certain types of nuclear radiation easily penetrates the walls of industrial vessels, but is attenuated by…

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Understanding Electrical Power Grids

The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…

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FOUNDATION Fieldbus H1 Protocol Segment Troubleshooting

Feedback obtained from industrial users of FF reveal a common pattern: Fieldbus is a powerful and reliable…

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Introduction to Inductors and Inductance

Any conductor possesses a characteristic called inductance: the ability to store energy in the form of a…

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Valve Positioners

The reason why a pneumatic control valve’s stem position corresponds linearly to the amount of air…

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Relation Control

A control strategy similar to ratio control is relation control. This is similar to ratio control in that a…

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Periodic Table of the Ions

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Pipe and Pipe Fittings

Pipe is a hollow structure designed to provide an enclosed pathway for fluids to flow, usually manufactured…

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Electronic Structure

Earlier in this chapter you were shown a model of a nitrogen atom with a dense nucleus (comprised of protons…

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Vibration Physics

One very convenient feature of waves is that their properties are universal. Waves of water in the ocean,…

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Digital Representation of Text

Binary patterns are not just able to represent numerical values. Given a standardized code, they may represent…

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