Layer 1 of the OSI Reference Model is where we define the “physical” elements of a digital data…
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Calculus has a reputation for being difficult to learn, and with good reason. The traditional approach to…
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As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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RTDs are completely passive sensing elements, requiring the application of an externally-sourced electric…
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“Radio” systems use electromagnetic fields to communicate information over long distances through…
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As we have seen, the concept of integration is finding the accumulation of one variable multiplied by another…
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A variety of problem-solving techniques have been presented for students over the years which are all helpful…
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A completely different way of measuring liquid level in vessels is to bounce a traveling wave off the surface…
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In November of 2007 a new computer virus was submitted to a virus scanning service. The purpose of this new…
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Some of the simplest types of digital communication networks found in industry are defined by the EIA…
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Learning PLC programming is a very important skill. If your job involves programming, then you will likely…
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Learning how to tune PID controllers is a skill born of much practice. Regardless of how thoroughly you may…
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“Feedforward” is a rather under-used control strategy capable of managing a great many types of…
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Developed by the Modicon company (the original manufacturer of the Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC) in…
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An engineer named Bob Metcalfe conceived the idea of Ethernet in 1973, while working for the Xerox research…
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The majority of flowmeter technologies operate on the principle of interpreting fluid flow based on the…
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Like so many other industrial data networks, FOUNDATION Fieldbus is an “unswitched” or…
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Process measurements are often of an analog nature: the temperature of a furnace, the rate of fluid flow…
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Thermodynamics is the study of heat, temperature, and their related effects in physical systems. As a subject,…
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Shown here is a partial listing of principles applied in the subject matter of this chapter, given for the…
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The efficient identification and correction of instrument calibration errors is an important function for…
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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RTDs are completely passive sensing elements, requiring the application of an externally-sourced electric…
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There are many process control applications in the industry where it is desirable to have multiple control…
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Hydrogen ion activity in aqueous (water-solvent) solutions is a very important parameter for a wide variety of…
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Imagine a major marathon race, where hundreds of runners gather in one place to compete. When the starting gun…
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The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…
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Perhaps the most valuable skill an instrument technician can possess is the ability to efficiently diagnose…
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As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, instrumentation safety may be broadly divided into two…
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A technological advance introduced in the late 1980’s was HART, an acronym standing for Highway…
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As we have seen, feedforward control is a way to improve the stability of a feedback control system in the…
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Light is known to interact with matter in very specific ways, which may be exploited as a means of measuring…
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Human-machine interfaces, or HMIs, are a critical part of nearly all control systems, complementing the…
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An engineer named Bob Metcalfe conceived the idea of Ethernet in 1973, while working for the Xerox research…
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When control valves operate between fully open and fully shut, they serve much the same purpose in process…
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While the term “probability” may evoke images of imprecision, probability is in fact an exact…
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The transformer is one of the most important components in all of AC circuitry. Principally used to…
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The Law of Continuity for fluids states that the product of mass density (\(\rho\)), cross-sectional pipe area…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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Fluid pressure exerts force on any surface area it contacts, as described by the formula \(F = PA\). One…
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An important performance parameter for transmitter instruments is something often referred to as turndown or…
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Many traditional flowmeter technologies respond to the volumetric flow rate of the moving fluid.…
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This animation shows the basic operation of a gas chromatograph, showing the separation of different molecular…
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Diagnostic ability is arguably the most difficult skill to develop within a student, and also the most…
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A much simpler alternative to continuous vibration sensors (displacement or acceleration) and monitoring…
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Multiple accessories exist for pressure-sensing devices to function optimally in challenging process…
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The dispersion of visible light into its constituent colors goes all the way back to the 17th century with…
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An extremely important topic in engineering is that of transfer functions. Simply defined, a transfer function…
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Process analyzers measure the concentration of specific substances for the purpose of measuring and/or…
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A limit switch detects the physical motion of an object by direct contact with that object. An example of a…
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Any conductor possesses a characteristic called inductance: the ability to store energy in the form of a…
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Pipe is a hollow structure designed to provide an enclosed pathway for fluids to flow, usually manufactured…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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Every programmable logic controller must have some means of receiving and interpreting signals from real-world…
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Suppose we wished to measure the rate of propane gas flow through a hose to a torch: Flowmeters appropriate…
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A pneumatic controller receives a process variable (PV) signal as a variable air pressure, compares that…
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To review, voltage is the measure of potential energy available to electric charges. Current is the uniform…
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As defined previously, calibration means the comparison and adjustment (if necessary) of an instrument’s…
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