Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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Those familiar with industrial instrumentation will find much within the electric power industry remarkably…
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Electrical power grids primarily consist of three-phase AC circuits. This means most power lines (transmission…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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A form of protection against faults on long-distance power lines is called distance relaying, so named because…
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Since we often use electricity to convey energy from one location to another, it is important to be able to…
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Disconnect Switches Disconnects are switches designed to isolate sections of a power system in case of damage…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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Current is the name we give to the motion of electric charges from a point of high potential to a point of low…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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The transformer is one of the most important components in all of AC circuitry. Principally used to…
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DC electric motors generate torque by a reaction between two magnetic fields: one field established by…
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By definition, a source is a device delivering energy into a system, while a load is a device extracting…
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Most people reading this book have likely had the experience of adjusting water temperature using two hand…
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A very common method for directly controlling low flow rates of fluids is to use a device known as a metering…
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pH is the measurement of the hydrogen ion activity in a liquid solution. It is one of the most common forms of…
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Weight-based level instruments sense process level in a vessel by directly measuring the weight of the vessel.…
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Impedance in a series circuit is the orthogonal sum of resistance and reactance: \[Z = \sqrt{R^2 + (X_L -…
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An electric motor is often used as a discrete control element in a control system if driving a pump, conveyor…
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A completely different way of measuring liquid level in vessels is to bounce a traveling wave off the surface…
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Control strategies such as cascade, ratio, feedforward, and those containing limit and selector functions can…
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A design-based fortification is one rooted in technical details of system architecture and functionality. Some…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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Like many other mathematical operations, the derivative and the integral perform inverse operations from each…
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Binary patterns are not just able to represent numerical values. Given a standardized code, they may represent…
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Given the ability of pressurized fluids to transmit force over long distances, it is not surprising that many…
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A quantitative PID tuning procedure is a step-by-step approach leading directly to a set of numerical values…
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So far we have just looked at instruments that sense, control, and influence process variables. Transmitters,…
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Instrument technicians should not have to concern themselves over the programming details internal to digital…
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Negative feedback systems, in general, tend to cause confusion for those first learning their fundamental…
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There are several different methods useful for causing an AC induction motor to brake, or slow down: DC…
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A level switch is one detecting the level of liquid or solid (granules or powder) in a vessel. Level switches…
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Any physical location in an industrial facility harboring the potential of explosion due to the presence of…
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