“Radio” systems use electromagnetic fields to communicate information over long distances through…
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When control valves operate between fully open and fully shut, they serve much the same purpose in process…
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The Law of Continuity for fluids states that the product of mass density (\(\rho\)), cross-sectional pipe area…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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An extremely important topic in engineering is that of transfer functions. Simply defined, a transfer function…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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Perhaps the most valuable skill an instrument technician can possess is the ability to efficiently diagnose…
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In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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Learning PLC programming is a very important skill. If your job involves programming, then you will likely…
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Phasors are to AC circuit quantities as polarity is to DC circuit quantities: a way to express the…
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As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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Imagine a major marathon race, where hundreds of runners gather in one place to compete. When the starting gun…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, instrumentation safety may be broadly divided into two…
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Non-dispersive analysis, while newer in discovery than dispersive analysis (Isaac Newton’s 17th-century…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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“Feedforward” is a rather under-used control strategy capable of managing a great many types of…
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An engineer named Bob Metcalfe conceived the idea of Ethernet in 1973, while working for the Xerox research…
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A completely different way of measuring liquid level in vessels is to bounce a traveling wave off the surface…
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Data-processing modules within FF systems are known as function blocks. Sometimes these blocks serve merely to…
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Pipe is a hollow structure designed to provide an enclosed pathway for fluids to flow, usually manufactured…
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The concepts of calibration (trimming) and ranging are often difficult for new students of instrumentation to…
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A temperature switch is one detecting the temperature of some substance. Temperature switches often use…
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A very common method for directly controlling low flow rates of fluids is to use a device known as a metering…
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There is much to be said for neatness of assembly in electrical signal wiring. Even though the electrons…
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Volumes could be written about poor diagnostic technique. The following mistakes are not intended to comprise…
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Electrical power grids primarily consist of three-phase AC circuits. This means most power lines (transmission…
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A chemical reaction resulting in a net release of energy is called exothermic. Conversely, a chemical reaction…
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Several different technologies exist for the conversion of fluid pressure into an electrical signal response.…
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Sensors used to measure vibration come in three basic types: displacement, velocity, and acceleration.…
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A unique form of technical diagram for describing the abstract functions comprising a control system (e.g. PID…
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Linearity of Measurement Instruments The purpose of calibration is to ensure the input and output of an…
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Regardless of valve type, all stem-actuated control valves require some form of seal allowing motion of the…
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As previously defined, calibration refers to the checking and adjustment of an instrument so that its output…
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Perhaps the most valuable skill an instrument technician can possess is the ability to efficiently diagnose…
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Perhaps the simplest form of solid or liquid level measurement is with a float: a device that rides on the…
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The Law of Mass Conservation states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed. The Law of Energy…
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Virtually any mass above absolute zero temperature emits electromagnetic radiation (photons, or light) as a…
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In a manually-controlled process, a human operator directly actuates some form of final control element…
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The disadvantages of pneumatic instruments are painfully evident to anyone familiar with both pneumatic and…
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