Sometimes we encounter a diversity of instrument signal standards in one control system. Such is the case with…
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Any physical location in an industrial facility harboring the potential of explosion due to the presence of…
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Virtually any mass above absolute zero temperature emits electromagnetic radiation (photons, or light) as a…
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An important type of “accessory” relay, especially for legacy electromechanical protective relays,…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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Labwork is an essential part of any science-based curriculum. Here, much improvement may be made over the…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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Learning PLC programming is a very important skill. If your job involves programming, then you will likely…
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Classical mechanics (often called Newtonian mechanics in honor of Isaac Newton) deal with forces and motions…
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Human-machine interfaces, or HMIs, are a critical part of nearly all control systems, complementing the…
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All masses require force to accelerate (we can also think of this in terms of the mass generating a reaction…
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In addition to directly performing logic functions, electromechanical relays may also be used as interposing…
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Those familiar with industrial instrumentation will find much within the electric power industry remarkably…
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In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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A fluid is any substance having the ability to flow: to freely change shape and move under the influence of a…
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Modern analog-to-digital converters are phenomenally accurate, dependable, repeatable, and surprisingly…
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There are several different methods useful for causing an AC induction motor to brake, or slow down: DC…
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Using filter cells to eliminate wavelengths associated with interfering gases is called positive filtering in…
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Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License By exercising the Licensed Rights (defined…
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When a high-energy photon strikes an atom, it may eject one of the lower-level electrons from its shell,…
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What is Calibration? To calibrate an instrument means to check and adjust (if necessary) its response so the…
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In a manually-controlled process, a human operator directly actuates some form of final control element…
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A bridge circuit is basically a pair of voltage dividers where the circuit output is taken as the difference…
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The following animation shows how a radio-energy pulse travels down and then up the waveguide of a guided-wave…
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Electrical Resistance Resistance (\(R\)) is the dissipative opposition to an electric current, analogous to…
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Perhaps the most valuable skill an instrument technician can possess is the ability to efficiently diagnose…
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The efficient identification and correction of instrument calibration errors is an important function for…
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Fluid pressure exerts force on any surface area it contacts, as described by the formula \(F = PA\). One…
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A laser is a light source emitting waves of light that not only share the exact same frequency (color)…
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Regardless of valve type, all stem-actuated control valves require some form of seal allowing motion of the…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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Imagine a liquid-level control system for a vessel, where the position of a level-sensing float sets the…
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Modern DC and AC motor drives provide features useful when using electric motors as final control elements.…
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Much of our knowledge about atomic structure comes from experimental data relating the interaction between…
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A sliding-stem valve body is one where the moving parts slide with a linear motion. Some examples of…
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Self-balancing mechanisms consisting solely of a baffle/nozzle detector coupled to a feedback bellows, while…
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Disturbances in the liquid tend to complicate liquid level measurement. These disturbances may result from…
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The Law of Continuity for fluids states that the product of mass density (\(\rho\)), cross-sectional pipe area…
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As described earlier in this chapter, calibration refers to the adjustment of an instrument so its output…
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