A design-based fortification is one rooted in technical details of system architecture and functionality. Some…
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One of the great benefits of digital technology is the ability to communicate vast amounts of information over…
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RTDs are completely passive sensing elements, requiring the application of an externally-sourced electric…
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Programmable logic controllers are essentially nothing more than special-purpose, industrial computers. As…
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…
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Some self-powered (4-wire) analog electronic transmitters are designed to behave as electrical loads rather…
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An engineer named Bob Metcalfe conceived the idea of Ethernet in 1973, while working for the Xerox research…
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Some of the simplest types of digital communication networks found in industry are defined by the EIA…
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There is much to be said for neatness of assembly in electrical signal wiring. Even though the electrons…
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Learn about Modbus function codes, the structure of Modbus message packets, and the various types of channels used to transmit Modbus telegrams between controllers.
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It is possible to convey electrical power and communicate analog information over the same two wires using 4…
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Learning PLC programming is a very important skill. If your job involves programming, then you will likely…
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Layer 1 of the OSI Reference Model is where we define the “physical” elements of a digital data…
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DC electric current signals may also be used to communicate process measurement information from transmitters…
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pH is the measurement of the hydrogen ion activity in a liquid solution. It is one of the most common forms of…
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Labwork is an essential part of any science-based curriculum. Here, much improvement may be made over the…
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I remember first learning about the world-wide Internet, and wondering what it actually looked like. The first…
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Steam boilers are very common in industry, principally because steam power is so useful. Common uses for steam…
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Sample sizes of chemical substances are often measured in moles. One mole of a substance is defined as a…
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The following animation shows a rotating phasor in three-dimensional form. The phasor rotates in a complex…
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The disadvantages of pneumatic instruments are painfully evident to anyone familiar with both pneumatic and…
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Level gauges are perhaps the simplest indicating instrument for liquid level in a vessel. They are often found…
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A damper (otherwise known as a louvre) is a multi-element flow control device generally used to throttle large…
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A hand switch is exactly what the name implies: an electrical switch actuated by a person’s hand motion.…
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A completely different way of measuring liquid level in vessels is to bounce a traveling wave off the surface…
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Capacitors store energy in electric fields, proportional to the square of voltage. Inductors store energy in…
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A number of different sensors used in instrumentation generate DC voltage signals proportional to the process…
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Although analog electronic process controllers are considered a newer technology than pneumatic process…
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When control valves operate between fully open and fully shut, they serve much the same purpose in process…
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Several different technologies exist for the conversion of fluid pressure into an electrical signal response.…
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A bridge circuit is basically a pair of voltage dividers where the circuit output is taken as the difference…
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There are several different methods useful for causing an AC induction motor to brake, or slow down: DC…
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An on/off valve is the fluid equivalent of an electrical switch: a device that either allows unimpeded flow or…
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Filled-bulb systems exploit the principle of fluid expansion to measure temperature. If a fluid is enclosed in…
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Disturbances in the liquid tend to complicate liquid level measurement. These disturbances may result from…
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This section does not describe a particular type of flowmeter, but rather a design that may be implemented for…
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