Continuous Float Level Transmitters

Perhaps the simplest form of solid or liquid level measurement is with a float: a device that rides on the…

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Phasor Analysis of Transformer Circuits

Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…

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What is Electrical Power?

Since we often use electricity to convey energy from one location to another, it is important to be able to…

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Null-balance Voltage Measurement

A number of different sensors used in instrumentation generate DC voltage signals proportional to the process…

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Process Flow Diagrams

To show a practical process example, let’s examine three diagrams for a compressor control system,…

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Pneumatic Actuator Response

A limitation inherent to pneumatic valve actuators is the amount of air flow required to or from the actuator…

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Teaching Technical Theory

Learning is not merely a process of information transfer. It is first and foremost a transformation of…

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Quantitative PID Tuning Procedures

A quantitative PID tuning procedure is a step-by-step approach leading directly to a set of numerical values…

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Vibration Monitoring Hardware

The following photograph shows a large air blower in a wastewater treatment facility equipped with a…

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Level Sensor Accessories

Disturbances in the liquid tend to complicate liquid level measurement. These disturbances may result from…

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The Concept of Differentiation

Suppose we wished to measure the rate of propane gas flow through a hose to a torch: Flowmeters appropriate…

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DC Motor Speed Control

DC electric motors generate torque by a reaction between two magnetic fields: one field established by…

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Valve Positioners

The reason why a pneumatic control valve’s stem position corresponds linearly to the amount of air…

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Level Switches

A level switch is one detecting the level of liquid or solid (granules or powder) in a vessel. Level switches…

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Comparison of Op-Amp Circuits With Analogous Pneumatic Mechanisms

Self-balancing pneumatic instrument mechanisms are very similar to negative-feedback operational amplifier…

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Self-balancing Pneumatic Instruments Principles

A great many precision instruments use the principle of balance to measure some quantity. Perhaps the simplest…

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Derivative (Rate) Control

The final element of PID control is the “D” term, which stands for derivative. This is a calculus…

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Basic Components Common to all Radio Systems

“Radio” systems use electromagnetic fields to communicate information over long distances through…

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Periodic Table of the Ions

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Electromagnetism Basics

The fundamental principle of electromagnetism is that an electric current will create a magnetic field at…

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