Electromechanical relays may be connected together to perform logic and control functions, acting as logic…
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There is much to be said for neatness of assembly in electrical signal wiring. Even though the electrons…
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Using filter cells to eliminate wavelengths associated with interfering gases is called positive filtering in…
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Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License By exercising the Licensed Rights (defined…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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The digital multimeter (DMM) is quite possibly the most useful tool in the instrument technician’s…
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Disconnect Switches Disconnects are switches designed to isolate sections of a power system in case of damage…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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Modern analog-to-digital converters are phenomenally accurate, dependable, repeatable, and surprisingly…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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In addition to directly performing logic functions, electromechanical relays may also be used as interposing…
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An electric motor is often used as a discrete control element in a control system if driving a pump, conveyor…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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A fluid is any substance having the ability to flow: to freely change shape and move under the influence of a…
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Learning PLC programming is a very important skill. If your job involves programming, then you will likely…
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An important type of “accessory” relay, especially for legacy electromechanical protective relays,…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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Virtually any mass above absolute zero temperature emits electromagnetic radiation (photons, or light) as a…
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Area refers to the size of two-dimensional surface. Volume refers to the size of a three-dimensional space. To…
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Coy, John J. et. al. (December 2012) Sampled graphic illustrations from his NASA Reference Publication…
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Many liquid substances undergo a process whereby their constituent molecules split into positively and…
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Calculus. Few areas of mathematics are as powerfully useful in describing and analyzing the physical…
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Mechanical pressure-sensing elements include the bellows, the diaphragm, and the bourdon tube. Each of these…
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Lipták, Béla G. et al., Instrument Engineers’ Handbook – Process Measurement and Analysis Volume I,…
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Modern analog-to-digital converters are phenomenally accurate, dependable, repeatable, and surprisingly…
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To review, voltage is the measure of potential energy available to electric charges. Current is the uniform…
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Perhaps the most important rule of controller tuning is to know the process before attempting to adjust the…
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The next level of detail is the Process and Instrument Diagram, or P&ID. Here, we see a “zooming…
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Fluid pressure exerts force on any surface area it contacts, as described by the formula \(F = PA\). One…
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Many traditional flowmeter technologies respond to the volumetric flow rate of the moving fluid.…
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While the term “probability” may evoke images of imprecision, probability is in fact an exact…
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Process measurements are often of an analog nature: the temperature of a furnace, the rate of fluid flow…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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Electrical power grids primarily consist of three-phase AC circuits. This means most power lines (transmission…
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Perhaps the simplest form of solid or liquid level measurement is with a float: a device that rides on the…
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A whole class of problem-solving techniques focuses on altering the given problem into a simpler form that is…
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The Law of Continuity for fluids states that the product of mass density (\(\rho\)), cross-sectional pipe area…
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A fluid is any substance having the ability to flow: to freely change shape and move under the influence of a…
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