Electromechanical relays may be connected together to perform logic and control functions, acting as logic…
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The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…
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The reason why a pneumatic control valve’s stem position corresponds linearly to the amount of air…
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Disconnect Switches Disconnects are switches designed to isolate sections of a power system in case of damage…
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Using filter cells to eliminate wavelengths associated with interfering gases is called positive filtering in…
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An important type of “accessory” relay, especially for legacy electromechanical protective relays,…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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Modern analog-to-digital converters are phenomenally accurate, dependable, repeatable, and surprisingly…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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Those familiar with industrial instrumentation will find much within the electric power industry remarkably…
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In addition to directly performing logic functions, electromechanical relays may also be used as interposing…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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A form of protection against faults on long-distance power lines is called distance relaying, so named because…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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There is much to be said for neatness of assembly in electrical signal wiring. Even though the electrons…
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Human-machine interfaces, or HMIs, are a critical part of nearly all control systems, complementing the…
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Learning PLC programming is a very important skill. If your job involves programming, then you will likely…
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Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License By exercising the Licensed Rights (defined…
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Electrical power grids primarily consist of three-phase AC circuits. This means most power lines (transmission…
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A sliding-stem valve body is one where the moving parts slide with a linear motion. Some examples of…
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The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…
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One of the great benefits of digital technology is the ability to communicate vast amounts of information over…
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Flow, by definition, is the passage of material from one location to another over time. So far this chapter…
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A great many precision instruments use the principle of balance to measure some quantity. Perhaps the simplest…
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When a high-energy photon strikes an atom, it may eject one of the lower-level electrons from its shell,…
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Stoichiometry is the accounting of atoms before and after a chemical reaction. It is an expression of the Law…
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The following photograph shows a large air blower in a wastewater treatment facility equipped with a…
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Much of our knowledge about atomic structure comes from experimental data relating the interaction between…
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Volumes could be written about poor diagnostic technique. The following mistakes are not intended to comprise…
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Up until this point, we have explored various types of instrumentation diagram, each one making reference to…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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A quantitative PID tuning procedure is a step-by-step approach leading directly to a set of numerical values…
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A whole class of problem-solving techniques focuses on altering the given problem into a simpler form that is…
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One of the most common, and most useful, pressure measuring instruments in industry is the differential…
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The three “elementary” particles of matter comprising all atoms are electrons, protons, and…
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Capacitors store energy in electric fields, proportional to the square of voltage. Inductors store energy in…
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To show a practical process example, let’s examine three diagrams for a compressor control system,…
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