One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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A fluid is any substance having the ability to flow: to freely change shape and move under the influence of a…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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The reason why a pneumatic control valve’s stem position corresponds linearly to the amount of air…
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Labwork is an essential part of any science-based curriculum. Here, much improvement may be made over the…
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Electromechanical relays may be connected together to perform logic and control functions, acting as logic…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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There is much to be said for neatness of assembly in electrical signal wiring. Even though the electrons…
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Disconnect Switches Disconnects are switches designed to isolate sections of a power system in case of damage…
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The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…
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Any physical location in an industrial facility harboring the potential of explosion due to the presence of…
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Modern analog-to-digital converters are phenomenally accurate, dependable, repeatable, and surprisingly…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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Those familiar with industrial instrumentation will find much within the electric power industry remarkably…
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In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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The digital multimeter (DMM) is quite possibly the most useful tool in the instrument technician’s…
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All masses require force to accelerate (we can also think of this in terms of the mass generating a reaction…
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Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License By exercising the Licensed Rights (defined…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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The following animation shows the calculus concepts of differentiation and integration (with respect to time)…
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A great many precision instruments use the principle of balance to measure some quantity. Perhaps the simplest…
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A sliding-stem valve body is one where the moving parts slide with a linear motion. Some examples of…
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A unique form of differential pressure-based flow measurement deserves its own section in this flow…
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Recall that an exothermic chemical reaction is one that releases a net sum of energy, as opposed to an…
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Suppose we wished to measure the rate of propane gas flow through a hose to a torch: Flowmeters appropriate…
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Certain types of nuclear radiation easily penetrates the walls of industrial vessels, but is attenuated by…
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An engineer named Bob Metcalfe conceived the idea of Ethernet in 1973, while working for the Xerox research…
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A flow switch is one that detects the flow of some fluid through a pipe. Flow switches often use…
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Human-machine interfaces, or HMIs, are a critical part of nearly all control systems, complementing the…
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A pneumatic controller receives a process variable (PV) signal as a variable air pressure, compares that…
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An important performance parameter for transmitter instruments is something often referred to as turndown or…
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Any power grid large enough to meet the demand of an entire nation must have multiple generators drawing from…
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A chemical reaction resulting in a net release of energy is called exothermic. Conversely, a chemical reaction…
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A fluid is any substance having the ability to flow: to freely change shape and move under the influence of a…
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Thermodynamics is the study of heat, temperature, and their related effects in physical systems. As a subject,…
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While the term “probability” may evoke images of imprecision, probability is in fact an exact…
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(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)
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As described earlier in this chapter, calibration refers to the adjustment of an instrument so its output…
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It is often useful to express the amplitude of an alternating quantity such as voltage or current in terms…
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In this section I will show screenshots from a process loop simulation program illustrating the effectiveness…
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A very common form of on/off valve used for pneumatic and hydraulic systems alike is the solenoid valve. A…
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The reason why a pneumatic control valve’s stem position corresponds linearly to the amount of air…
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A machine in the broad sense of the word is any device designed to translate some form of energy into useful…
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This section shows some of the many instrument symbols found in different types of technical diagrams used to…
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A bridge circuit is basically a pair of voltage dividers where the circuit output is taken as the difference…
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Area refers to the size of two-dimensional surface. Volume refers to the size of a three-dimensional space. To…
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A positive displacement flowmeter is a cyclic mechanism built to pass a fixed volume of fluid through with…
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Regardless of valve type, all stem-actuated control valves require some form of seal allowing motion of the…
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Modern DC and AC motor drives provide features useful when using electric motors as final control elements.…
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Linearity of Measurement Instruments The purpose of calibration is to ensure the input and output of an…
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A technological advance introduced in the late 1980’s was HART, an acronym standing for Highway…
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The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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The concepts of calibration (trimming) and ranging are often difficult for new students of instrumentation to…
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An important legacy technology for all kinds of continuous measurement is the self-balancing system. A…
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A hand switch is exactly what the name implies: an electrical switch actuated by a person’s hand motion.…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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pH is the measurement of the hydrogen ion activity in a liquid solution. It is one of the most common forms of…
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In addition to directly performing logic functions, electromechanical relays may also be used as interposing…
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Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…
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