The reason why a pneumatic control valve’s stem position corresponds linearly to the amount of air…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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Human-machine interfaces, or HMIs, are a critical part of nearly all control systems, complementing the…
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Labwork is an essential part of any science-based curriculum. Here, much improvement may be made over the…
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In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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All masses require force to accelerate (we can also think of this in terms of the mass generating a reaction…
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Modern analog-to-digital converters are phenomenally accurate, dependable, repeatable, and surprisingly…
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A fluid is any substance having the ability to flow: to freely change shape and move under the influence of a…
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An important type of “accessory” relay, especially for legacy electromechanical protective relays,…
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A form of protection against faults on long-distance power lines is called distance relaying, so named because…
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Regulating the electric power sent to an electric motor is a task performed by high-speed switching…
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Virtually any mass above absolute zero temperature emits electromagnetic radiation (photons, or light) as a…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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The digital multimeter (DMM) is quite possibly the most useful tool in the instrument technician’s…
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Electromechanical relays may be connected together to perform logic and control functions, acting as logic…
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Any physical location in an industrial facility harboring the potential of explosion due to the presence of…
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Using filter cells to eliminate wavelengths associated with interfering gases is called positive filtering in…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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Disconnect Switches Disconnects are switches designed to isolate sections of a power system in case of damage…
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In addition to Ohm’s Law, we have a set of rules describing how voltages, currents, and resistances…
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A fundamental limitation of proportional control has to do with its response to changes in setpoint and…
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Lipták, Béla G. et al., Instrument Engineers’ Handbook – Process Measurement and Analysis Volume I,…
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Filled-bulb systems exploit the principle of fluid expansion to measure temperature. If a fluid is enclosed in…
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A limit switch detects the physical motion of an object by direct contact with that object. An example of a…
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Some problem-solving techniques are unique to quantitative problems, involving mathematical calculations. In…
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A hand switch is exactly what the name implies: an electrical switch actuated by a person’s hand motion.…
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A very common method for directly controlling low flow rates of fluids is to use a device known as a metering…
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Impedance in a series circuit is the orthogonal sum of resistance and reactance: \[Z = \sqrt{R^2 + (X_L -…
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A bridge circuit is basically a pair of voltage dividers where the circuit output is taken as the difference…
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Given the ability of pressurized fluids to transmit force over long distances, it is not surprising that many…
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A proximity switch is one detecting the proximity (closeness) of some object. By definition, these switches…
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In this section I will show screenshots from a process loop simulation program illustrating the effectiveness…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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Sensors used to measure vibration come in three basic types: displacement, velocity, and acceleration.…
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Non-dispersive analysis, while newer in discovery than dispersive analysis (Isaac Newton’s 17th-century…
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A whole class of problem-solving techniques focuses on altering the given problem into a simpler form that is…
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A temperature switch is one detecting the temperature of some substance. Temperature switches often use…
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The final step in treating wastewater before releasing it into the natural environment is to kill any harmful…
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A different strategy for controlling the flow of fluid is to insert a rotary element into the flow path.…
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Electrical power grids primarily consist of three-phase AC circuits. This means most power lines (transmission…
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Linearity of Measurement Instruments The purpose of calibration is to ensure the input and output of an…
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DC electric motors generate torque by a reaction between two magnetic fields: one field established by…
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A fundamental limitation of proportional control has to do with its response to changes in setpoint and…
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A sliding-stem valve body is one where the moving parts slide with a linear motion. Some examples of…
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Many years ago, when I was first learning about electricity, I happened to discover a length of coaxial…
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In reliability engineering, it is important to be able to quantity the reliability (or conversely, the…
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A great many chemical composition measurements may be made indirectly by means of electricity, if those…
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A 4 to 20 mA current signal represents some signal along a 0 to 100 percent scale. Usually, this scale is…
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Like many other mathematical operations, the derivative and the integral perform inverse operations from each…
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Hydrogen ion activity in aqueous (water-solvent) solutions is a very important parameter for a wide variety of…
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A Safety Instrumented Function, or SIF, is one or more components designed to execute a specific…
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Most people reading this book have likely had the experience of adjusting water temperature using two hand…
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Filled-bulb systems exploit the principle of fluid expansion to measure temperature. If a fluid is enclosed in…
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A flow switch is one that detects the flow of some fluid through a pipe. Flow switches often use…
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“As to methods there may be a million and then some, but principles are few. The man who grasps…
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An engineer named Bob Metcalfe conceived the idea of Ethernet in 1973, while working for the Xerox research…
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Up until this point, we have explored various types of instrumentation diagram, each one making reference to…
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