Digital Representation of Numerical Data

Process measurements are often of an analog nature: the temperature of a furnace, the rate of fluid flow…

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Fluid Mechanics

A fluid is any substance having the ability to flow: to freely change shape and move under the influence of a…

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Motives for Compromising the Security of an Industrial Control System

There are multiple motives for compromising the security of an industrial control system, some of which…

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Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

At the next OSI Reference Model layer (layer 4) is a set of protocols specifying how reliable communication…

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Numerical Differentiation

As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…

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Assessing Student Learning

As a general rule, high achievement only takes place in an atmosphere of high expectations. Sometimes these…

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Null-balance Voltage Measurement

A number of different sensors used in instrumentation generate DC voltage signals proportional to the process…

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Different PID Equations

For better or worse, there are no fewer than three different forms of PID equations implemented in modern PID…

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Examples of PLC Systems

Programmable logic controllers are essentially nothing more than special-purpose, industrial computers. As…

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Common Control Valve Problems

Valves can experience a number of problems, most of them either preventable or repairable. These problems can…

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Split-Range Control

There are many process control applications in the industry where it is desirable to have multiple control…

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Understanding Area, Volume and Common Geometry

Area refers to the size of two-dimensional surface. Volume refers to the size of a three-dimensional space. To…

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Digital Representation of Text

Binary patterns are not just able to represent numerical values. Given a standardized code, they may represent…

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Chemical Reactor Temperature Control Example

Sometimes we encounter a diversity of instrument signal standards in one control system. Such is the case with…

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Introduction to Power System Automation

Those familiar with industrial instrumentation will find much within the electric power industry remarkably…

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Tube and Tube Fittings

Tube, like pipe, is a hollow structure designed to provide an enclosed pathway for fluids to flow. In the case…

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Safety Gas Analyzers

Process analyzers measure the concentration of specific substances for the purpose of measuring and/or…

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Function Block Diagram (FBD) Programming

(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)

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Basic Operation of a Gas Chromatograph

This animation shows the basic operation of a gas chromatograph, showing the separation of different molecular…

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Electrical Sensors: Potential Transformers (PTs) and Current Transformers (CTs)

The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…

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Ethernet networks: Repeaters, Cabling and Switching Hubs

An engineer named Bob Metcalfe conceived the idea of Ethernet in 1973, while working for the Xerox research…

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