Process measurements are often of an analog nature: the temperature of a furnace, the rate of fluid flow…
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pH is the measurement of the hydrogen ion activity in a liquid solution. It is one of the most common forms of…
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When control valves operate between fully open and fully shut, they serve much the same purpose in process…
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DC electric motors generate torque by a reaction between two magnetic fields: one field established by…
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As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, instrumentation safety may be broadly divided into two…
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The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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Solids tend to expand when heated. The amount that a solid sample will expand with increased temperature…
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Electrical Resistance Resistance (\(R\)) is the dissipative opposition to an electric current, analogous to…
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Perhaps the most valuable skill an instrument technician can possess is the ability to efficiently diagnose…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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The following animation shows a rotating phasor in three-dimensional form. The phasor rotates in a complex…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)
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One of the great benefits of digital technology is the ability to communicate vast amounts of information over…
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Non-dispersive analysis, while newer in discovery than dispersive analysis (Isaac Newton’s 17th-century…
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A 4 to 20 mA current signal represents some signal along a 0 to 100 percent scale. Usually, this scale is…
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Capacitive level instruments measure electrical capacitance of a conductive rod inserted vertically into a…
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The three “elementary” particles of matter comprising all atoms are electrons, protons, and…
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One of the marks of a successful problem-solver is a habit of applying general principles to every new problem…
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Virtually any mass above absolute zero temperature emits electromagnetic radiation (photons, or light) as a…
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