There are multiple motives for compromising the security of an industrial control system, some of which…
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Cyber-security seems to have its own vocabulary, ranging from unwieldy technical acronyms to slang terms…
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Every programmable logic controller must have some means of receiving and interpreting signals from real-world…
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“Radio” systems use electromagnetic fields to communicate information over long distances through…
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There are multiple motives for compromising the security of an industrial control system, some of which…
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I remember first learning about the world-wide Internet, and wondering what it actually looked like. The first…
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An engineer named Bob Metcalfe conceived the idea of Ethernet in 1973, while working for the Xerox research…
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At the next OSI Reference Model layer (layer 4) is a set of protocols specifying how reliable communication…
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Cyber-security seems to have its own vocabulary, ranging from unwieldy technical acronyms to slang terms…
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Imagine a major marathon race, where hundreds of runners gather in one place to compete. When the starting gun…
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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Pipe is a hollow structure designed to provide an enclosed pathway for fluids to flow, usually manufactured…
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Many years ago, when I was first learning about electricity, I happened to discover a length of coaxial…
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There is much to be said for neatness of assembly in electrical signal wiring. Even though the electrons…
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In order to provide an interface between the internal (digital) world of a computer and the external (analog)…
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A bridge circuit is basically a pair of voltage dividers where the circuit output is taken as the difference…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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A completely different way of measuring liquid level in vessels is to bounce a traveling wave off the surface…
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Developed by the Modicon company (the original manufacturer of the Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC) in…
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Process measurements are often of an analog nature: the temperature of a furnace, the rate of fluid flow…
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Programmable logic controllers are essentially nothing more than special-purpose, industrial computers. As…
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These fortifications focus on human behavior rather than system design or component selection. In some ways…
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A 4 to 20 mA current signal represents some signal along a 0 to 100 percent scale. Usually, this scale is…
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To show a practical process example, let’s examine three diagrams for a compressor control system,…
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A fundamental limitation of proportional control has to do with its response to changes in setpoint and…
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Much has been written about the benefits of robust PID control. Increased productivity, decreased equipment…
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Displacer level instruments exploit Archimedes’ Principle to detect liquid level by continuously…
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In a manually-controlled process, a human operator directly actuates some form of final control element…
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The final element of PID control is the “D” term, which stands for derivative. This is a calculus…
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Perhaps the most important rule of controller tuning is to know the process before attempting to adjust the…
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The Law of Mass Conservation states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed. The Law of Energy…
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Lipták, Béla G. et al., Instrument Engineers’ Handbook – Process Measurement and Analysis Volume I,…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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The next level of detail is the Process and Instrument Diagram, or P&ID. Here, we see a “zooming…
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In reliability engineering, it is important to be able to quantity the reliability (or conversely, the…
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A laser is a light source emitting waves of light that not only share the exact same frequency (color)…
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Negative feedback systems, in general, tend to cause confusion for those first learning their fundamental…
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Light is known to interact with matter in very specific ways, which may be exploited as a means of measuring…
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The transformer is one of the most important components in all of AC circuitry. Principally used to…
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Level gauges are perhaps the simplest indicating instrument for liquid level in a vessel. They are often found…
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Nearly every technical course teaches and tests students on definitions, basic concepts, and at least some…
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An important type of “accessory” relay, especially for legacy electromechanical protective relays,…
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