Programmable logic controllers are essentially nothing more than special-purpose, industrial computers. As…
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Learn about Modbus function codes, the structure of Modbus message packets, and the various types of channels used to transmit Modbus telegrams between controllers.
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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Learning PLC programming is a very important skill. If your job involves programming, then you will likely…
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Layer 1 of the OSI Reference Model is where we define the “physical” elements of a digital data…
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An engineer named Bob Metcalfe conceived the idea of Ethernet in 1973, while working for the Xerox research…
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Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…
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Labwork is an essential part of any science-based curriculum. Here, much improvement may be made over the…
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Some of the simplest types of digital communication networks found in industry are defined by the EIA…
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pH is the measurement of the hydrogen ion activity in a liquid solution. It is one of the most common forms of…
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DC electric current signals may also be used to communicate process measurement information from transmitters…
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RTDs are completely passive sensing elements, requiring the application of an externally-sourced electric…
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It is possible to convey electrical power and communicate analog information over the same two wires using 4…
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A design-based fortification is one rooted in technical details of system architecture and functionality. Some…
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I remember first learning about the world-wide Internet, and wondering what it actually looked like. The first…
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One of the great benefits of digital technology is the ability to communicate vast amounts of information over…
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Some self-powered (4-wire) analog electronic transmitters are designed to behave as electrical loads rather…
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There is much to be said for neatness of assembly in electrical signal wiring. Even though the electrons…
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Level gauges are perhaps the simplest indicating instrument for liquid level in a vessel. They are often found…
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Any power grid large enough to meet the demand of an entire nation must have multiple generators drawing from…
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Imagine a liquid-level control system for a vessel, where the position of a level-sensing float directly sets…
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Perhaps the simplest form of solid or liquid level measurement is with a float: a device that rides on the…
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Capacitors store energy in electric fields, proportional to the square of voltage. Inductors store energy in…
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Suppose we wished to measure the consumption of propane over time for a large propane storage tank supplying a…
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Light is known to interact with matter in very specific ways, which may be exploited as a means of measuring…
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At the root of successful system diagnosis is a rigorous adherence to scientific reasoning. There exists no…
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In addition to Ohm’s Law, we have a set of rules describing how voltages, currents, and resistances…
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As described earlier in this chapter, calibration refers to the adjustment of an instrument so its output…
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Human-machine interfaces, or HMIs, are a critical part of nearly all control systems, complementing the…
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A vertical column of fluid generates a pressure at the bottom of the column owing to the action of gravity on…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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Filled-bulb systems exploit the principle of fluid expansion to measure temperature. If a fluid is enclosed in…
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An extremely important topic in engineering is that of transfer functions. Simply defined, a transfer function…
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A positive displacement flowmeter is a cyclic mechanism built to pass a fixed volume of fluid through with…
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One of the most common, and most useful, pressure measuring instruments in industry is the differential…
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Modern analog-to-digital converters are phenomenally accurate, dependable, repeatable, and surprisingly…
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As we have seen, the concept of integration is finding the accumulation of one variable multiplied by another…
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Perhaps the most valuable skill an instrument technician can possess is the ability to efficiently diagnose…
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