Solids tend to expand when heated. The amount that a solid sample will expand with increased temperature…
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A vertical column of fluid generates a pressure at the bottom of the column owing to the action of gravity on…
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Electrical power grids primarily consist of three-phase AC circuits. This means most power lines (transmission…
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Many traditional flowmeter technologies respond to the volumetric flow rate of the moving fluid.…
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One very convenient feature of waves is that their properties are universal. Waves of water in the ocean,…
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In our first signal characterization example, we tackle the problem of measuring fluid flow through a pipe. To…
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One of the great benefits of digital technology is the ability to communicate vast amounts of information over…
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Layer 1 of the OSI Reference Model is where we define the “physical” elements of a digital data…
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A number of different sensors used in instrumentation generate DC voltage signals proportional to the process…
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The following animation shows the calculus concepts of differentiation and integration (with respect to time)…
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Programmable logic controllers are essentially nothing more than special-purpose, industrial computers. As…
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The majority of flowmeter technologies operate on the principle of interpreting fluid flow based on the…
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To better understand the design and operation of self-balancing pneumatic mechanisms, it is helpful to examine…
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An important design parameter of a control valve is the position it will “fail” to if it loses…
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The final element of PID control is the “D” term, which stands for derivative. This is a calculus…
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Modern analog-to-digital converters are phenomenally accurate, dependable, repeatable, and surprisingly…
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A design-based fortification is one rooted in technical details of system architecture and functionality. Some…
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Fieldbus devices require far more attention in their initial setup and commissioning than their analog…
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In addition to Ohm’s Law, we have a set of rules describing how voltages, currents, and resistances…
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Stoichiometry is the accounting of atoms before and after a chemical reaction. It is an expression of the Law…
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Any power grid large enough to meet the demand of an entire nation must have multiple generators drawing from…
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