While the term “probability” may evoke images of imprecision, probability is in fact an exact…
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(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)
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The reason why a pneumatic control valve’s stem position corresponds linearly to the amount of air…
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Multiple accessories exist for pressure-sensing devices to function optimally in challenging process…
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These fortifications focus on human behavior rather than system design or component selection. In some ways…
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A wise PLC programmer once told me that the first thing any aspiring programmer should learn about the PLC…
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Perhaps the most confusing aspect of discrete sensors is the definition of a sensor’s normal status.…
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An electric motor is often used as a discrete control element in a control system if driving a pump, conveyor…
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In order to provide an interface between the internal (digital) world of a computer and the external (analog)…
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Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…
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There are multiple motives for compromising the security of an industrial control system, some of which…
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One of the most important accessories for any temperature-sensing element is a pressure-tight sheath known as…
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Modern analog-to-digital converters are phenomenally accurate, dependable, repeatable, and surprisingly…
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A Safety Instrumented Function, or SIF, is one or more components designed to execute a specific…
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Steam boilers are very common in industry, principally because steam power is so useful. Common uses for steam…
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Every programmable logic controller must have some means of receiving and interpreting signals from real-world…
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(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)
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(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)
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In addition to directly performing logic functions, electromechanical relays may also be used as interposing…
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A design-based fortification is one rooted in technical details of system architecture and functionality. Some…
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Any power grid large enough to meet the demand of an entire nation must have multiple generators drawing from…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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Linearity of Measurement Instruments The purpose of calibration is to ensure the input and output of an…
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A limit switch detects the physical motion of an object by direct contact with that object. An example of a…
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To show a practical process example, let’s examine three diagrams for a compressor control system,…
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Some problem-solving techniques are unique to quantitative problems, involving mathematical calculations. In…
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In modern industry, the most popular form of field-level signal transmission for variable industrial…
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A temperature switch is one detecting the temperature of some substance. Temperature switches often use…
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(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)
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Imagine a liquid-level control system for a vessel, where the position of a level-sensing float sets the…
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When a high-energy photon strikes an atom, it may eject one of the lower-level electrons from its shell,…
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Measuring the flow rate of liquid through an open channel is not unlike measuring the flow rate of a liquid…
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Some analyzers measure the composition of a process stream by directly immersing the sensing element in that…
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This section does not describe a particular type of flowmeter, but rather a design that may be implemented for…
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Like many other mathematical operations, the derivative and the integral perform inverse operations from each…
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As defined previously, calibration means the comparison and adjustment (if necessary) of an instrument’s…
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Most people reading this book have likely had the experience of adjusting water temperature using two hand…
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Instrument technicians should not have to concern themselves over the programming details internal to digital…
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Electrical Resistance Resistance (\(R\)) is the dissipative opposition to an electric current, analogous to…
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Using filter cells to eliminate wavelengths associated with interfering gases is called positive filtering in…
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