Although analog electronic process controllers are considered a newer technology than pneumatic process…
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All substances are comprised of various elements in various combinations and proportions. Elements may thus be…
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It is often useful to express the amplitude of an alternating quantity such as voltage or current in terms…
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Sensors used to measure vibration come in three basic types: displacement, velocity, and acceleration.…
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Negative feedback systems, in general, tend to cause confusion for those first learning their fundamental…
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Much has been written about the benefits of robust PID control. Increased productivity, decreased equipment…
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Fluid pressure exerts force on any surface area it contacts, as described by the formula \(F = PA\). One…
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As described earlier in this chapter, calibration refers to the adjustment of an instrument so its output…
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pH is the measurement of the hydrogen ion activity in a liquid solution. It is one of the most common forms of…
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Two extremely important principles in electric circuits were codified by Gustav Robert Kirchhoff in the year…
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A limitation inherent to pneumatic valve actuators is the amount of air flow required to or from the actuator…
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Most of these formulae appear in molecular chemical form rather than structural form. For example, ethanol…
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Labwork is an essential part of any science-based curriculum. Here, much improvement may be made over the…
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Most people reading this book have likely had the experience of adjusting water temperature using two hand…
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The next level of detail is the Process and Instrument Diagram, or P&ID. Here, we see a “zooming…
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Some self-powered (4-wire) analog electronic transmitters are designed to behave as electrical loads rather…
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Disconnect Switches Disconnects are switches designed to isolate sections of a power system in case of damage…
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In reliability engineering, it is important to be able to quantity the reliability (or conversely, the…
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A powerful mathematical concept useful for analyzing practically any physical system – electrical…
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These fortifications focus on human behavior rather than system design or component selection. In some ways…
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Calculus. Few areas of mathematics are as powerfully useful in describing and analyzing the physical…
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Electrical power grids primarily consist of three-phase AC circuits. This means most power lines (transmission…
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Human-machine interfaces, or HMIs, are a critical part of nearly all control systems, complementing the…
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Phasors are to AC circuit quantities as polarity is to DC circuit quantities: a way to express the…
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As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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The Law of Mass Conservation states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed. The Law of Energy…
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Earlier in this chapter you were shown a model of a nitrogen atom with a dense nucleus (comprised of protons…
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An on/off valve is the fluid equivalent of an electrical switch: a device that either allows unimpeded flow or…
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Valve actuators provide force to move control valve trim. For precise positioning of a control valve, there…
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A vertical column of fluid generates a pressure at the bottom of the column owing to the action of gravity on…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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Valves can experience a number of problems, most of them either preventable or repairable. These problems can…
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Regulating the electric power sent to an electric motor is a task performed by high-speed switching…
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The purpose of a control valve actuator is to provide the motive force to operate a valve mechanism. Both…
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Although analog electronic process controllers are considered a newer technology than pneumatic process…
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An electromechanical relay is an electrical switch actuated by an electromagnet coil. As switching devices,…
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Filled-bulb systems exploit the principle of fluid expansion to measure temperature. If a fluid is enclosed in…
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Perhaps the most confusing aspect of discrete sensors is the definition of a sensor’s normal status.…
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The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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One of the most important accessories for any temperature-sensing element is a pressure-tight sheath known as…
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