Pipe is a hollow structure designed to provide an enclosed pathway for fluids to flow, usually manufactured…
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In addition to directly performing logic functions, electromechanical relays may also be used as interposing…
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Electrical Resistance Resistance (\(R\)) is the dissipative opposition to an electric current, analogous to…
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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When a high-energy photon strikes an atom, it may eject one of the lower-level electrons from its shell,…
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Phasors are to AC circuit quantities as polarity is to DC circuit quantities: a way to express the…
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Human-machine interfaces, or HMIs, are a critical part of nearly all control systems, complementing the…
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Electrical power grids primarily consist of three-phase AC circuits. This means most power lines (transmission…
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An electric motor is often used as a discrete control element in a control system if driving a pump, conveyor…
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Like many other mathematical operations, the derivative and the integral perform inverse operations from each…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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Perhaps the most confusing aspect of discrete sensors is the definition of a sensor’s normal status.…
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Thermodynamics is the study of heat, temperature, and their related effects in physical systems. As a subject,…
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A unique form of technical diagram for describing the abstract functions comprising a control system (e.g. PID…
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In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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Some problem-solving techniques are unique to quantitative problems, involving mathematical calculations. In…
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To review, voltage is the measure of potential energy available to electric charges. Current is the uniform…
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Capacitive level instruments measure electrical capacitance of a conductive rod inserted vertically into a…
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Learning how to tune PID controllers is a skill born of much practice. Regardless of how thoroughly you may…
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A fundamental limitation of proportional control has to do with its response to changes in setpoint and…
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Phasors are to AC circuit quantities as polarity is to DC circuit quantities: a way to express the…
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Sample sizes of chemical substances are often measured in moles. One mole of a substance is defined as a…
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The next level of detail is the Process and Instrument Diagram, or P&ID. Here, we see a “zooming…
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An important legacy technology for all kinds of continuous measurement is the self-balancing system. A…
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An important design parameter of a control valve is the position it will “fail” to if it loses…
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As defined previously, calibration means the comparison and adjustment (if necessary) of an instrument’s…
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Current is the name we give to the motion of electric charges from a point of high potential to a point of low…
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Control valves are supposed to deliver reliable, repeatable control of process fluid flow rate over a wide…
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Valves can experience a number of problems, most of them either preventable or repairable. These problems can…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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Any physical location in an industrial facility harboring the potential of explosion due to the presence of…
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Suppose we wished to measure the consumption of propane over time for a large propane storage tank supplying a…
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Modern DC and AC motor drives provide features useful when using electric motors as final control elements.…
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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Perhaps the simplest form of solid or liquid level measurement is with a float: a device that rides on the…
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Pipe is a hollow structure designed to provide an enclosed pathway for fluids to flow, usually manufactured…
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Multiple accessories exist for pressure-sensing devices to function optimally in challenging process…
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A wise PLC programmer once told me that the first thing any aspiring programmer should learn about the PLC…
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The following animation shows how a radio-energy pulse travels down and then up the waveguide of a guided-wave…
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