“Radio” systems use electromagnetic fields to communicate information over long distances through…
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Tube, like pipe, is a hollow structure designed to provide an enclosed pathway for fluids to flow. In the case…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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This section does not describe a particular type of flowmeter, but rather a design that may be implemented for…
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A 4 to 20 mA current signal represents some signal along a 0 to 100 percent scale. Usually, this scale is…
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The disadvantages of pneumatic instruments are painfully evident to anyone familiar with both pneumatic and…
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Programmable logic controllers are essentially nothing more than special-purpose, industrial computers. As…
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Mechanical pressure-sensing elements include the bellows, the diaphragm, and the bourdon tube. Each of these…
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Imagine a liquid-level control system for a vessel, where the position of a level-sensing float sets the…
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Learning from reading printed text is a kind of problem-solving activity it is own right. The problem is how…
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Binary patterns are not just able to represent numerical values. Given a standardized code, they may represent…
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Any power grid large enough to meet the demand of an entire nation must have multiple generators drawing from…
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Sensors used to measure vibration come in three basic types: displacement, velocity, and acceleration.…
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The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…
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It is often useful to express the amplitude of an alternating quantity such as voltage or current in terms…
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Fieldbus devices require far more attention in their initial setup and commissioning than their analog…
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The reason why a pneumatic control valve’s stem position corresponds linearly to the amount of air…
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While the term “probability” may evoke images of imprecision, probability is in fact an exact…
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Two extremely important principles in electric circuits were codified by Gustav Robert Kirchhoff in the year…
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The dispersion of visible light into its constituent colors goes all the way back to the 17th century with…
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As we have seen, feedforward control is a way to improve the stability of a feedback control system in the…
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