“Radio” systems use electromagnetic fields to communicate information over long distances through…
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pH is the measurement of the hydrogen ion activity in a liquid solution. It is one of the most common forms of…
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Using filter cells to eliminate wavelengths associated with interfering gases is called positive filtering in…
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An important type of “accessory” relay, especially for legacy electromechanical protective relays,…
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Most of these formulae appear in molecular chemical form rather than structural form. For example, ethanol…
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A Safety Instrumented Function, or SIF, is one or more components designed to execute a specific…
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As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, instrumentation safety may be broadly divided into two…
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The disadvantages of pneumatic instruments are painfully evident to anyone familiar with both pneumatic and…
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A quantitative PID tuning procedure is a step-by-step approach leading directly to a set of numerical values…
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I remember first learning about the world-wide Internet, and wondering what it actually looked like. The first…
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Capacitors store energy in electric fields, proportional to the square of voltage. Inductors store energy in…
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Impedance in a series circuit is the orthogonal sum of resistance and reactance: \[Z = \sqrt{R^2 + (X_L -…
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In order to provide an interface between the internal (digital) world of a computer and the external (analog)…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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As described earlier in this chapter, calibration refers to the adjustment of an instrument so its output…
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A design-based fortification is one rooted in technical details of system architecture and functionality. Some…
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Filled-bulb systems exploit the principle of fluid expansion to measure temperature. If a fluid is enclosed in…
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To review, voltage is the measure of potential energy available to electric charges. Current is the uniform…
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All masses require force to accelerate (we can also think of this in terms of the mass generating a reaction…
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Earlier in this chapter you were shown a model of a nitrogen atom with a dense nucleus (comprised of protons…
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