In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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There are many process control applications in the industry where it is desirable to have multiple control…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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The Law of Continuity for fluids states that the product of mass density (\(\rho\)), cross-sectional pipe area…
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The transformer is one of the most important components in all of AC circuitry. Principally used to…
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When control valves operate between fully open and fully shut, they serve much the same purpose in process…
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Data-processing modules within FF systems are known as function blocks. Sometimes these blocks serve merely to…
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Although analog electronic process controllers are considered a newer technology than pneumatic process…
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A technological advance introduced in the late 1980’s was HART, an acronym standing for Highway…
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A completely different way of measuring liquid level in vessels is to bounce a traveling wave off the surface…
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Learning PLC programming is a very important skill. If your job involves programming, then you will likely…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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Imagine a major marathon race, where hundreds of runners gather in one place to compete. When the starting gun…
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The efficient identification and correction of instrument calibration errors is an important function for…
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As we have seen, feedforward control is a way to improve the stability of a feedback control system in the…
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Light is known to interact with matter in very specific ways, which may be exploited as a means of measuring…
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Learn about Modbus function codes, the structure of Modbus message packets, and the various types of channels used to transmit Modbus telegrams between controllers.
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Instrument technicians should not have to concern themselves over the programming details internal to digital…
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A pneumatic controller receives a process variable (PV) signal as a variable air pressure, compares that…
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In November of 2007 a new computer virus was submitted to a virus scanning service. The purpose of this new…
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Area refers to the size of two-dimensional surface. Volume refers to the size of a three-dimensional space. To…
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Electromechanical relays may be connected together to perform logic and control functions, acting as logic…
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Up until this point, we have explored various types of instrumentation diagram, each one making reference to…
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Calculus has a reputation for being difficult to learn, and with good reason. The traditional approach to…
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A very common form of on/off valve used for pneumatic and hydraulic systems alike is the solenoid valve. A…
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A simple control system drawn in block diagram form looks like this: Information from the measuring device…
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At the root of successful system diagnosis is a rigorous adherence to scientific reasoning. There exists no…
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(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)
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Capacitors store energy in electric fields, proportional to the square of voltage. Inductors store energy in…
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An engineer named Bob Metcalfe conceived the idea of Ethernet in 1973, while working for the Xerox research…
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Level gauges are perhaps the simplest indicating instrument for liquid level in a vessel. They are often found…
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Thermodynamics is the study of heat, temperature, and their related effects in physical systems. As a subject,…
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Valves can experience a number of problems, most of them either preventable or repairable. These problems can…
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This section shows some of the many instrument symbols found in different types of technical diagrams used to…
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Atom: the smallest unit of matter that may be isolated by chemical means. Particle: a part of an atom,…
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Disconnect Switches Disconnects are switches designed to isolate sections of a power system in case of damage…
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A great many chemical composition measurements may be made indirectly by means of electricity, if those…
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