P, I, and D Responses Graphed

Visualizing the actions of P, I, and D tuning parameters using graphs is extremely useful in predicting the…

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Process and Instrument Diagrams

The next level of detail is the Process and Instrument Diagram, or P&ID. Here, we see a “zooming…

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AC Motor Speed Control

AC induction motors are based on the principle of a rotating magnetic field produced by a set of stationary…

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LRV and URV Settings, Digital Trim (Digital Transmitters)

The advent of “smart” field instruments containing microprocessors has been a great advance for…

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Ladder Diagram (LD) Programming Contacts and Coils

In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…

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Understanding Area, Volume and Common Geometry

Area refers to the size of two-dimensional surface. Volume refers to the size of a three-dimensional space. To…

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Metric Prefixes and Prefix Scale

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Unit Conversions and Physical Constants

Converting between disparate units of measurement is the bane of many science students. The problem is worse…

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What is Electrical Power?

Since we often use electricity to convey energy from one location to another, it is important to be able to…

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What is Hydrostatic Pressure?

A vertical column of fluid generates a pressure at the bottom of the column owing to the action of gravity on…

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On/off Shut-off Valves

An on/off valve is the fluid equivalent of an electrical switch: a device that either allows unimpeded flow or…

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Level Switches

A level switch is one detecting the level of liquid or solid (granules or powder) in a vessel. Level switches…

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Interconnected Generators

Any power grid large enough to meet the demand of an entire nation must have multiple generators drawing from…

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Fiber Optic Data Communication

Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…

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Understanding the “Normal” Status of a Process Switch

Perhaps the most confusing aspect of discrete sensors is the definition of a sensor’s normal status.…

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Dampers and Louvres

A damper (otherwise known as a louvre) is a multi-element flow control device generally used to throttle large…

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FOUNDATION Fieldbus H1 Protocol Device Configuration and Commissioning

Fieldbus devices require far more attention in their initial setup and commissioning than their analog…

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Kirchhoff’s Current and Voltage Laws

Two extremely important principles in electric circuits were codified by Gustav Robert Kirchhoff in the year…

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Electrical Sensors: Potential Transformers (PTs) and Current Transformers (CTs)

The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…

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Dimensional Analysis

An interesting parallel to the “unity fraction” unit conversion technique is something referred to…

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