Virtually any mass above absolute zero temperature emits electromagnetic radiation (photons, or light) as a…
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One of the most important accessories for any temperature-sensing element is a pressure-tight sheath known as…
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Multiple accessories exist for pressure-sensing devices to function optimally in challenging process…
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Disturbances in the liquid tend to complicate liquid level measurement. These disturbances may result from…
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Disconnect Switches Disconnects are switches designed to isolate sections of a power system in case of damage…
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Any physical location in an industrial facility harboring the potential of explosion due to the presence of…
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The fundamental principle of electromagnetism is that an electric current will create a magnetic field at…
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Self-balancing pneumatic instrument mechanisms are very similar to negative-feedback operational amplifier…
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A vertical column of fluid generates a pressure at the bottom of the column owing to the action of gravity on…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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In some process applications, it is important that the control valve be able to completely stop fluid flow…
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An important design parameter of a control valve is the position it will “fail” to if it loses…
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A simple control system drawn in block diagram form looks like this: Information from the measuring device…
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RTDs are completely passive sensing elements, requiring the application of an externally-sourced electric…
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Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…
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As we have seen, feedforward control is a way to improve the stability of a feedback control system in the…
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AC induction motors are based on the principle of a rotating magnetic field produced by a set of stationary…
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A 4 to 20 mA current signal represents some signal along a 0 to 100 percent scale. Usually, this scale is…
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A laser is a light source emitting waves of light that not only share the exact same frequency (color)…
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A form of protection against faults on long-distance power lines is called distance relaying, so named because…
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It is possible to convey electrical power and communicate analog information over the same two wires using 4…
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One of the most important accessories for any temperature-sensing element is a pressure-tight sheath known as…
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Several different technologies exist for the conversion of fluid pressure into an electrical signal response.…
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Electromechanical relays may be connected together to perform logic and control functions, acting as logic…
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Capacitors store energy in electric fields, proportional to the square of voltage. Inductors store energy in…
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As previously defined, calibration refers to the checking and adjustment of an instrument so that its output…
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Electrical Resistance Resistance (\(R\)) is the dissipative opposition to an electric current, analogous to…
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Many traditional flowmeter technologies respond to the volumetric flow rate of the moving fluid.…
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Lipták, Béla G. et al., Instrument Engineers’ Handbook – Process Measurement and Analysis Volume I,…
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Many liquid substances undergo a process whereby their constituent molecules split into positively and…
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All masses require force to accelerate (we can also think of this in terms of the mass generating a reaction…
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The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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Electrical power grids primarily consist of three-phase AC circuits. This means most power lines (transmission…
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The reason why a pneumatic control valve’s stem position corresponds linearly to the amount of air…
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When I began teaching full-time in 1998, most of what I thought I understood about good teaching was actually…
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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Like so many other industrial data networks, FOUNDATION Fieldbus is an “unswitched” or…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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The dispersion of visible light into its constituent colors goes all the way back to the 17th century with…
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A positive displacement flowmeter is a cyclic mechanism built to pass a fixed volume of fluid through with…
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A much simpler alternative to continuous vibration sensors (displacement or acceleration) and monitoring…
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This section does not describe a particular type of flowmeter, but rather a design that may be implemented for…
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