The transformer is one of the most important components in all of AC circuitry. Principally used to…
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DC electric motors generate torque by a reaction between two magnetic fields: one field established by…
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Electrical power grids primarily consist of three-phase AC circuits. This means most power lines (transmission…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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By definition, a source is a device delivering energy into a system, while a load is a device extracting…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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Disconnect Switches Disconnects are switches designed to isolate sections of a power system in case of damage…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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A form of protection against faults on long-distance power lines is called distance relaying, so named because…
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Current is the name we give to the motion of electric charges from a point of high potential to a point of low…
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Those familiar with industrial instrumentation will find much within the electric power industry remarkably…
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Since we often use electricity to convey energy from one location to another, it is important to be able to…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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The transformer is one of the most important components in all of AC circuitry. Principally used to…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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By definition, a source is a device delivering energy into a system, while a load is a device extracting…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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Lipták, Béla G. et al., Instrument Engineers’ Handbook – Process Measurement and Analysis Volume I,…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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So far we have just looked at instruments that sense, control, and influence process variables. Transmitters,…
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Like many other mathematical operations, the derivative and the integral perform inverse operations from each…
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Every programmable logic controller must have some means of receiving and interpreting signals from real-world…
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Current is the name we give to the motion of electric charges from a point of high potential to a point of low…
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The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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A laser is a light source emitting waves of light that not only share the exact same frequency (color)…
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An important type of “accessory” relay, especially for legacy electromechanical protective relays,…
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As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, instrumentation safety may be broadly divided into two…
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A limitation inherent to pneumatic valve actuators is the amount of air flow required to or from the actuator…
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An important performance parameter for transmitter instruments is something often referred to as turndown or…
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Converting between disparate units of measurement is the bane of many science students. The problem is worse…
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To show a practical process example, let’s examine three diagrams for a compressor control system,…
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A vertical column of fluid generates a pressure at the bottom of the column owing to the action of gravity on…
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Capacitance Any two electrical conductors separated by an insulating medium possess the characteristic called…
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Level gauges are perhaps the simplest indicating instrument for liquid level in a vessel. They are often found…
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