Those familiar with industrial instrumentation will find much within the electric power industry remarkably…
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Disconnect Switches Disconnects are switches designed to isolate sections of a power system in case of damage…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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Since we often use electricity to convey energy from one location to another, it is important to be able to…
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A form of protection against faults on long-distance power lines is called distance relaying, so named because…
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DC electric motors generate torque by a reaction between two magnetic fields: one field established by…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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By definition, a source is a device delivering energy into a system, while a load is a device extracting…
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Electrical power grids primarily consist of three-phase AC circuits. This means most power lines (transmission…
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Current is the name we give to the motion of electric charges from a point of high potential to a point of low…
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The transformer is one of the most important components in all of AC circuitry. Principally used to…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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Those familiar with industrial instrumentation will find much within the electric power industry remarkably…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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As we have seen, the concept of integration is finding the accumulation of one variable multiplied by another…
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Any conductor possesses a characteristic called inductance: the ability to store energy in the form of a…
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Instrument technicians should not have to concern themselves over the programming details internal to digital…
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Suppose we wished to measure the rate of propane gas flow through a hose to a torch: Flowmeters appropriate…
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A fluid is any substance having the ability to flow: to freely change shape and move under the influence of a…
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One very convenient feature of waves is that their properties are universal. Waves of water in the ocean,…
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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Given the ability of pressurized fluids to transmit force over long distances, it is not surprising that many…
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These fortifications focus on human behavior rather than system design or component selection. In some ways…
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A design-based fortification is one rooted in technical details of system architecture and functionality. Some…
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Perhaps the most important rule of controller tuning is to know the process before attempting to adjust the…
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A chemical reaction resulting in a net release of energy is called exothermic. Conversely, a chemical reaction…
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Perhaps the most important rule to obey when using pneumatic instruments is to maintain clean and dry…
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“As to methods there may be a million and then some, but principles are few. The man who grasps…
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Impedance in a series circuit is the orthogonal sum of resistance and reactance: \[Z = \sqrt{R^2 + (X_L -…
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Level gauges are perhaps the simplest indicating instrument for liquid level in a vessel. They are often found…
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Most pneumatic instruments use a simple but highly sensitive mechanism for converting mechanical motion into…
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The dispersion of visible light into its constituent colors goes all the way back to the 17th century with…
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The digital multimeter (DMM) is quite possibly the most useful tool in the instrument technician’s…
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