The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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A whole class of problem-solving techniques focuses on altering the given problem into a simpler form that is…
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At the next OSI Reference Model layer (layer 4) is a set of protocols specifying how reliable communication…
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Calculus has a reputation for being difficult to learn, and with good reason. The traditional approach to…
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The simplest form of 4-20 mA current loop is the type used to represent the output of a process controller,…
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Solids tend to expand when heated. The amount that a solid sample will expand with increased temperature…
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Weight-based level instruments sense process level in a vessel by directly measuring the weight of the vessel.…
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An important legacy technology for all kinds of continuous measurement is the self-balancing system. A…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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The following animation shows how a radio-energy pulse travels down and then up the waveguide of a guided-wave…
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As defined previously, calibration means the comparison and adjustment (if necessary) of an instrument’s…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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Electromechanical relays may be connected together to perform logic and control functions, acting as logic…
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Capacitance Any two electrical conductors separated by an insulating medium possess the characteristic called…
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Light is known to interact with matter in very specific ways, which may be exploited as a means of measuring…
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Up until this point, we have explored various types of instrumentation diagram, each one making reference to…
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Self-balancing pneumatic instrument mechanisms are very similar to negative-feedback operational amplifier…
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As we have seen, feedforward control is a way to improve the stability of a feedback control system in the…
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Modern analog-to-digital converters are phenomenally accurate, dependable, repeatable, and surprisingly…
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So far we have just looked at instruments that sense, control, and influence process variables. Transmitters,…
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A great many chemical composition measurements may be made indirectly by means of electricity, if those…
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Binary patterns are not just able to represent numerical values. Given a standardized code, they may represent…
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Solids tend to expand when heated. The amount that a solid sample will expand with increased temperature…
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Control valves are supposed to deliver reliable, repeatable control of process fluid flow rate over a wide…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…
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Many years ago, when I was first learning about electricity, I happened to discover a length of coaxial…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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A flow switch is one that detects the flow of some fluid through a pipe. Flow switches often use…
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Some analyzers measure the composition of a process stream by directly immersing the sensing element in that…
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Instrument technicians should not have to concern themselves over the programming details internal to digital…
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Any conductor possesses a characteristic called inductance: the ability to store energy in the form of a…
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A bridge circuit is basically a pair of voltage dividers where the circuit output is taken as the difference…
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Diagnostic ability is arguably the most difficult skill to develop within a student, and also the most…
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Tube, like pipe, is a hollow structure designed to provide an enclosed pathway for fluids to flow. In the case…
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Self-balancing pneumatic instrument mechanisms are very similar to negative-feedback operational amplifier…
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Imagine a liquid-level control system for a vessel, where the position of a level-sensing float sets the…
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A 4 to 20 mA current signal represents some signal along a 0 to 100 percent scale. Usually, this scale is…
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Capacitance Any two electrical conductors separated by an insulating medium possess the characteristic called…
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Solids tend to expand when heated. The amount that a solid sample will expand with increased temperature…
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Perhaps the most confusing aspect of discrete sensors is the definition of a sensor’s normal status.…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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Modern analog-to-digital converters are phenomenally accurate, dependable, repeatable, and surprisingly…
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In this section I will show screenshots from a process loop simulation program illustrating the effectiveness…
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Most of these formulae appear in molecular chemical form rather than structural form. For example, ethanol…
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AC induction motors are based on the principle of a rotating magnetic field produced by a set of stationary…
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Instrument technicians should not have to concern themselves over the programming details internal to digital…
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A number of different sensors used in instrumentation generate DC voltage signals proportional to the process…
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Labwork is an essential part of any science-based curriculum. Here, much improvement may be made over the…
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Capacitance Any two electrical conductors separated by an insulating medium possess the characteristic called…
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Atom: the smallest unit of matter that may be isolated by chemical means. Particle: a part of an atom,…
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Control strategies such as cascade, ratio, feedforward, and those containing limit and selector functions can…
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Fluid pressure exerts force on any surface area it contacts, as described by the formula \(F = PA\). One…
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Any physical location in an industrial facility harboring the potential of explosion due to the presence of…
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A much simpler alternative to continuous vibration sensors (displacement or acceleration) and monitoring…
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Level gauges are perhaps the simplest indicating instrument for liquid level in a vessel. They are often found…
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Certain types of nuclear radiation easily penetrates the walls of industrial vessels, but is attenuated by…
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Like many other mathematical operations, the derivative and the integral perform inverse operations from each…
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Several different technologies exist for the conversion of fluid pressure into an electrical signal response.…
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